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Preface iii
Acknowledgements
vi
Introduction 1
- The influence of the media and the Internet 1
- Internet limits and local debates 5
- Mental culture and politics in Burma 6
- The structure of this book 9
Part I.
Myanmafication – Imprisoning Burma
1. Democracy, the
demise of socialism and Aung San amnesia 15
- Aung San Suu Kyi and the Aung San factor 15
- Aung San – first democracy, then socialism 20
- Blueprint for Burma 18
- Aung San's democracy 19
- Ne Win and ‘lightning rod
democracy’ 21
- NLD democracy 24
- SPDC disciplined democracy 24
- Democracy as intrinsic to Burmese politics 25
- Aung San amnesia 26
- Aung San reclaimed 27
- The denigration of Aung San
Suu Kyi 28
-
Reporting Aung San Suu Kyi 29
- ‘She
is a foreigner’ 30
- Democracy and socialism –
loka and lokuttara 32
- National independence and
freedom 33
-
Martyrs' Day 33
- Lut-lak-yeì 33
- Loka
nibbana 34
-
Freedom repressed 35
2. Myanmafication
(1): reinventing national unity without Aung San 37
- Hermit land and the Trojan Horse 37
- Political isolation 38
- Continued economic isolation 38
- Aung San Suu Kyi – the Trojan horse 39
- Burma and the significance of hermit practice 40
- The hermit and national independence 43
- Hermit practice, national independence and freedom 42
- Hermit land versus hermit practice 43
- Myanmar or Burma? 45
- A chronology 46
- SLORC initiatives 47
- Redrawn boundaries 47
- Myanmafication reasons 48
- The demerits of Myanmafication 49
- Myanmar and the ethnic question 49
- Literary Myanmar 50
- Myanmar transcribed 51
- Pronunciation confined 52
- Myanmar censored 52
- Royal Myanmar 53
- To ‘Myanmify’ is to unify 53
- Instruments for Myanmafication 54
- Committee for the Compilation of Authentic Data of
Myanmar History (CCADMH) 54
- The Myanmar Historical Commission (MHC) 55
- Myanmar Institute of Strategic and International
Studies (MISIS) 56
- Office of Strategic Studies (OSS) 57
3. Myanmafication
(2): the quest for national unity 59
- Early concepts of unity 60
- National unity – Aung San's samadhi and monastic
unity 62
- National unity – byama-so tayà 63
- Buddhism and unity as harmony 64
- Late concepts of unity 66
- Sloganeering unity 67
- Journalism and the historical quest for unity 67
- Colonialism and the destruction
of natural unity 68
- Only the army reunifies, party
politics divide 68
- The army is ‘not political’
69
- The army ‘develops’ 69
- If the army is unified, so is
the opposition 70
- Myanmar and the Mongol
Spot 71
- Research into unity as consolidation 72
- Khin Maung Nyunt – Burma as a
human body 72
- Colonel Kyaw Thein – unity
through transport 73
- ASEAN and national unity 74
- National unity – democracy and national
reconciliation 77
4. Myanmafication
(3): the four attributes of disciplined democracy 81
- Yazathat and the framework of law 82
- Conflicts over law 82
- Law and the regime 83
- Law and democracy 85
- Vernacular concepts of
law 85
- Universal laws 85
- Local laws 87
- Foreign laws in Burma 87
- Only local laws? 88
- Law and constitutional
liberalism 90
- Local laws, Aung San Suu Kyi
and the cucumber problem 90
- Myanmar culture 91
- Culture and anti-colonial
resistance 92
- Post-1988 expressions of
culture 93
- Culture and the generals 94
- Culture and consolidation of
the nation 95
- Nyunt
Han - culture in the service of national consolidation 96
-
'Anthropology' Kyaw Win - only wholesome culture for the nation 98
- Ye Htut
- culture as SLORC's 'light' 98
- Khin
Maung Nyunt's Myanmar cultural strategy - Buddhism 99
- Ethnic culture, consolidation
and anthropology 100
-
Anthropology 100
- Culture in media and education
101
- Culture and 'Asian values' 102
- Modernization and business 103
- Solidarity and development 104
- Modernization and phantasmagoria 105
- The army and development 106
- Union of Myanmar Economic Holdings (UMEH) 107
- Tourism 111
- The drug trade 112
- Government Organized Non-Governmental Organizations (GONGO) 113
- Myanmar Maternal and Child Welfare Association (MMCWA)
115
- Union Solidarity and Development Association (USDA) 116
- Myanmar Women's Entrepreneur Association (MWEA) 119
- Myanmar Red Cross Society (MRCS) 119
- Myanmar Writers and Journalists Association (MWJA) 120
- Other forms of 'social engineering' 120
5. Myanmafication
(4): building Mangala country and the Myanmar human origins 121
- Buddhism 121
- Merit making, restoration of Buddhist heritage, social service 123
- The army and merit making 123
- Forced labour and merit making 124
- Buddhism and Myanmar culture 126
- Buddhism and youth training 128
- Buddhist culture syllabus 128
- A guide to the Mangala Sutta: the ideology of State 128
- Discourse of the Supreme Blessings (Mahamangala Sutta) 131
- Exams in Buddhist culture 133
- The teachings of the Buddha (Basic Level) 133
- Buddhist missionary facilities 134
- Sitagu Buddhist Academy 134
- The Dhamma Talaka Peace Pagoda 135
- International Theravada Buddhist Missionary University (ITBMU) 135
- Buddhification as Myanmafication 137
- Myanmafication and the gender question 137
- Myanmar National Working Committee for Women's Affairs (MNWCWA) 139
- Myanmar National Committee for Women's Affairs (MNWC) 139
- All Myanmar Women's Affairs Committee (AMWAC) 139
- Women's days 140
- Cultural or military rape? 141
- Buddhism and women 141
- Myanmafication, human origins and national defence 142
- Ethnic respectability and archaeology 143
- Pondaung fossils 143
- Pondaung and propaganda 145
- Critiques of Myanmar archaeology 146
- Crimes against 'Myanmar culture' 147
- Illegalising contesting cultures 147
- Crime and the destruction of culture 148
- The Japanese factor and Asian values 149
- Support for culture 149
- The inseparability of culture from aid 151
- The implications of Japanese aid 153
- Aung San Suu Kyi and Japan 155
6. On military
authority (ana) and electoral influence (awza) 157
- Authoritarian models of State 157
- Buddhism in Saw Maung's elections 159
- The election factor - government, junta and opposition 160
- Buddhism and democracy 160
- Influence versus authority 161
- Authority and cetana 162
- Cetana versus metta 163
- Cetana and charity as conquest 163
- Cetana and merit 164
- The military - bad influence from outside 165
- The NLD - bad influence from inside 166
- Ana (authority) 167
- Awza (influence) 168
- Buddhism - awza comes prior to ana 169
- Military ana and NLD electoral awza 170
- Ana and the limits of Myanmafication 171
- The Myanmar self-sufficiency myth 172
- Ana and 'foreignizing' 173
- Conclusion 175
Part II. Mental
Culture Transcends Prison
7. Mental culture
and freedom 179
- Pagoda culture or mental culture? 179
- The Myanmar culture myth 180
- The local values myth 181
- Mental culture - the concept 182
- Mental culture is 'high' culture 184
8. Democracy
imprisoned 187
- Imprisonment in Burma 188
- Insein Prison 189
- Courage in prison 190
- Aung San Suu Kyi 190
- U Kyi Maung 191
- Tin U 191
- 'Spiritual strength' from within prison 192
9. Transcending
boundaries: samsara, the State, the prison and the self 195
- 'Buddhist' imprisonment 195
- Imprisonment and the Hpo Hlaing lineage of practice 198
- Yaw Atwinwun U Hpo Hlaing (1829-83) 199
- Political writings 199
- Writings on vipassana 200
- Parallels with the present 202
- The Ledi Sayadaw (1846-1923 203
- Accountant-General U Ba Khin 204
- Prime Minister U Nu 205
- Phra Phimontham (1901-?) 207
- Goenka 209
- Other prison experiences 209
- U Ottama (1879-1939) 210
- Meditating on the impermanence of the British 210
- Ludu U Hla 210
Part III. Mental
Culture and Liberation Politics
10. Political
opposition and Buddhism 213
- The nature of opposition 213
- Opposition is illegal 213
- Buddhism and humanitarianism 216
- Monasticism and career mobility 217
- Monasticism, revolution and political opposition 218
- Buddhism and the idiom of liberation 218
- The Sangha and Ne Win 220
- The Sangha and the democratic movement 220
- Democratic parliament under the Sangha 221
- The monastic boycott 222
- Democracy and economics 224
- Conclusion 225
11. Concepts in
liberation politics 227
- Government (yantarà) 227
- The wheel and dhamma 229
- Revolution (tawhlanyeì) 231
- Robert Taylor's analysis 231
- Early uses of tawhlanyeì 231
- Village Nationalist Associations (Wunthanú Athìn) 233
- Two forms of rebellion 233
- Confusion of meanings 233
- Components of the term 234
- Wunthanú - an interpretation 234
- Reinterpreting Burmese political naming 235
- Freedom Bloc (Htwetyak gaìng) 236
- Ba Maw's political career 237
- Founding the Freedom Bloc 237
- Bo Bo Aung 238
- The Martyr (Azani) 241
12. Aung San and
the ‘religion’ question 243
- 'Religion' in Aung San's speeches 243
- A note on the sources 246
- Education 248
- Thahkin 249
- The relationship with Japan 249
- Speeches during the Japanese occupation 250
- Towards national independence 250
- The loki pañña legacy 251
- Teiza 252
- Weikza 252
- Bo Bo Aung 253
- A reminder of the elections 255
- Middle Way 255
- Problems for Burma's freedom 256
- Buddhism and national independence 261
- Padesa tree 261
- Metta 261
- Samadhi 262
13. Mental culture
and crisis government 265
- Buddhist responses to political crises 265
- Saw Maung 265
- Tin U 266
- U Nu 267
- King Mindon 267
- Mental culture and the military 268
- U Nu and the Ne Win coup 268
- Military attitudes 269
- The Mahasi tradition 270
- Pa Auk Sayadaw 272
- Alodawpyay Sayadaw 272
Part IV. Aung San
Suu Kyi and Buddhism
14. Sources on
Aung San Suu Kyi 277
- John Parenteau 278
- Whitney Stewart 278
- Mikio Oishii 279
- Hpe Kan Kaùng 279
- Barbara Victor 280
15. Aung San Suu
Kyi: a personality cult? 281
- The regime's predicament 281
- Aung San Suu Kyi's predicament 282
- Angel or female bodhisattva? 282
- Complexities in Aung San Suu Kyi's situation 284
- Sainthood and the political inheritance of Aung San 285
16. Buddhicisation
of Aung San Suu Kyi 287
- Assessing the role of Buddhism 287
- Before the Shwedagon speech 288
- Aung San Suu Kyi's campaigning period 288
- Aung San Suu Kyi's house arrest 290
- Post-house arrest 291
- Factors influencing Aung San Suu Kyi's Buddhicisation 292
17. Freedom from
fear 295
- Freedom 295
- Depressed by fear 296
- Freedom from fear - democracy and human rights 296
- Freedom from fear - Aung San and Gandhi 297
- Buddhist freedom from fear 298
- Overcoming fear 299
18. Revolution of
the spirit 301
- Aung San Suu Kyi's revolution of the spirit 301
- Tin U's spiritual revolution 303
Part V. Mental
Culture in Democracy Politics
19. Byama-so
tayà: social meditation and the politics of influence 307
- Samatha and vipassana 307
- Vipassana 307
- Samatha 308
- Samatha and political ideology 308
- Byama-so tayà 309
- Socialism 309
- Legal matters 309
- The Buddhicisation of socialism 309
- Byama-so tayà and the moral precepts 310
- Byama-so tayà and the Thirty-Eight Mangala 311
- Rahula and Brahmacariya pariyosana 312
- Brahma-cariya as recitation 312
- Byama-so tayà and brahma-vihara 312
- The scriptural passage on brahma-vihara 313
- Samatha and cosmological attainment 313
- Supernatural protection 314
- Development 314
- Politics 315
- Reconciliation with opposites and enemies 316
- Social bonding 317
- The regime's uses of byama-so 318
- Asian values and ethnic exclusiveness 318
- Detachment from power 319
- Metta and karuna 320
- Metta Sutta (Hymn of Universal Love)321
- Metta and charity 322
- Metta and the nine moral precepts 322
- Metta, freedom from fear and success in mental culture 323
- Metta and samatha 324
- Metta and enlightenment 325
- Metta and Arimettaya 325
- Metta and authority 325
- Metta and imprisonment - the Jatakas 326
- Metta and anger 326
- Metta, evil, fear and invulnerability 326
- Metta, democracy and elimination of fear 329
- Karuna 330
20. Samatha
meditation and the politics of power and control 331
- Samatha, power and revolution 331
- Authorities fear Aung San Suu Kyi's samatha 332
- Samatha, metta and Thamanya Sayadaw 334
21.
Vipassana contemplation, democracy and the politics of wisdom and purity
337
- Wisdom 337
- NLD practice, mediation and purity of mind 338
- Aung San Suu Kyi's encounter with vipassana 339
- Awareness (sati) 340
- Vipassana and kamma 342
- Vipassana and ethicising the polity 343
Appendices
1. Mental culture
and politics in myth 344
- (1.1) Vipassana – a late historical transformation of the institution of
sacrifice 344
- (1.2) The role of mental culture in the world-origin myth 346
- (1.3) Mental culture in Manu's legal tradition 348
- (1.4) Mindlessly spilt honey drop causes destruction of Benaris 349
- (1.5) Royal discipline requires mental culture 349
- (1.6) The mandala – enlightenment and political structures 349
- (1.7) Vipassana and the founding of the Burmese State 350
- (1.8) The powers of the universal monarch 351
- (1.9) Burmese identity, nationalism and brahma-vihara (samatha)351
2. NLD activists:
quotations and criticisms 355
- A. Burmese/Burma 355
- B. Practice
355
- C. Bhavana (mental culture, meditation, contemplation, brahma-vihara, byama-so tayà, samadhi, kammathana, samatha, sati, vipassana) 355
- D. Brahma-vihara (divine abidings) 358
- E. Metta (loving-kindness) 360
- F. Karuna (compassion)363
- G. Kamma 364
- H. Politics and religion 364
- I. Buddhism 366
- J. Buddha/Bodhisattva 366
- K. Freedom 367
- L. Personal attacks on ASSK367
- M. Samadhi (concentration, one-pointed mind) 368
- N. Communism 368
- O. Fear 368
- P. Anger 370
- Q. Pañña (wisdom)370
- R. Sati (awareness, mindfulness, attention)370
- S. Revolution of the Spirit 372
- T. Enlightenment 372
- U. Parami 373
- V. Purity 373
- X. Kilesa (mental defilements) 373
- Y. Democracy 373
- ZA. Non-violence 377
- ZB. Evil 377
- ZC. Myanmar/Burma 377
- ZD. Dhamma, tayà, úbadei (law, justice) 377
- ZE. Culture 378
- ZF. Economics 378
- ZG. Elections
- ZH. Aung San 379
- ZI. Gandhi 380
- ZJ. Imprisonment (house arrest, car arrest, gueshouse arrest, forced
labour, forced portering, samsara) 380
- ZK. Dalai Lama 382
- ZL. Army 382
- ZM. Regime Slogans 382
- ZN. Religion 383
- ZO. Influence 383
Bibliography 385
Tables
- Table 1. Elected
governments and unelected regimes of Burma since national independence 11
- Table 2. Mental culture
in Burma and its socio-political connotations 12
- Table 3. Myanmar versus
Burma 45
- Table 4. Context of
‘Adaptation of Expressions Law’ 46
- Table 5. Dictionary
glosses of Bama and Myanma 50
- Table 6. Core political
terms and their relation to mental culture 61
- Table 7. Attributes of
diverse legal systems operating in Burma 86
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